Social Action and Social Movements in Nepal
I. Democracy Movements
a) 1951 Revolution: End of the Rana Regime
The 1951 Revolution in Nepal, also known as the end of the Rana regime, marked a critical turning point in the country’s political history. For over a century, the Rana dynasty held absolute power, reducing the monarchy to a figurehead and curbing civil liberties and political participation. Inspired by the Indian independence movement and global calls for democracy, the Nepali Congress and other activists launched a revolution to overthrow the autocratic regime. King Tribhuvan, who opposed the Ranas, fled to India and supported the pro-democracy forces, with backing from the Indian government.
The revolution culminated in 1951 when the Ranas were forced to negotiate with the democratic forces, resulting in the Delhi Compromise. This agreement reinstated King Tribhuvan with full authority, marking the end of Rana’s rule. A new interim government was formed, establishing Nepal as a constitutional monarchy with the promise of parliamentary democracy. Although this revolution ended Rana’s dominance, it also set the stage for years of political instability as Nepal transitioned toward a more democratic system.
b) 1990 People’s Movement (Jana Andolan I)
The 1990 People’s Movement (Jana Andolan I) was a significant pro-democracy uprising in Nepal that aimed to end the Panchayat system, an autocratic party-less political system imposed by King Mahendra in 1960. Under this system, the monarchy held absolute power, with political parties banned and civil liberties restricted. Dissatisfaction with the lack of political freedom and rising public discontent culminated in widespread protests led by a coalition of political forces, including the Nepali Congress and the Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist-Leninist).
The movement, fueled by the general population’s desire for democratic rights, gathered momentum in early 1990, with nationwide demonstrations and strikes. Faced with mounting pressure, King Birendra eventually gave in to the demands of the protesters. In April 1990, he agreed to dissolve the Panchayat system and allowed the formation of a constitutional monarchy, introducing a multiparty democracy. The new constitution adopted later that year guaranteed fundamental rights and established a parliamentary system, marking a critical shift in Nepal’s political landscape and laying the foundation for democratic governance.
c) 2006 People’s Movement (Jana Andolan II)
The 2006 People’s Movement (Jana Andolan II) was a pivotal pro-democracy uprising in Nepal that led to the end of King Gyanendra’s autocratic rule and paved the way for the establishment of a federal democratic republic. After years of political instability following the 1990 movement, King Gyanendra dissolved the parliament in 2005 and assumed direct control, sparking widespread protests. This move was widely condemned as an assault on democracy and civil liberties, leading to a mass mobilization of political parties, civil society, and the Maoist insurgents, who had been waging a decade-long armed conflict against the monarchy.
In April 2006, millions of Nepalis took to the streets in peaceful protests demanding an end to royal rule. The movement gained international support, and after weeks of sustained demonstrations, King Gyanendra was forced to reinstate the dissolved parliament. Shortly after, the government signed the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) with the Maoists, ending the civil conflict and initiating a political transition. In 2008, the monarchy was officially abolished, and Nepal was declared a secular federal republic, setting the stage for a new democratic constitution, which was eventually promulgated in 2015. This movement fundamentally reshaped Nepal’s political system, ending centuries of monarchy.
d) Post-2006 Political Developments
Following the 2006 People’s Movement (Jana Andolan II) and the restoration of democracy, Nepal underwent significant political changes, culminating in the transformation from a monarchy to a federal democratic republic. One of the key outcomes was the signing of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) in late 2006 between the government and the Maoists, ending a decade-long armed insurgency. The Maoists agreed to join mainstream politics, and the process of drafting a new constitution began.
In 2008, Nepal formally abolished its monarchy, with King Gyanendra stepping down, and the country was declared a secular republic. A Constituent Assembly was elected to draft a new constitution, but political instability, deep-seated ethnic, regional, and ideological differences among political parties, and the complex demands of marginalized groups delayed the constitution-drafting process. The first Constituent Assembly, elected in 2008, was dissolved in 2012 without producing a constitution, leading to a second Constituent Assembly election in 2013.
After prolonged political debates and negotiations, Nepal finally promulgated its new constitution in 2015, establishing a federal structure with seven provinces and guaranteeing fundamental rights for various ethnic, caste, and gender groups. However, the new constitution sparked protests, especially from the Madhesi and Tharu communities in the Terai region, who felt the federal demarcation and representation provisions did not adequately address their demands for autonomy and political inclusion. These post-2006 developments set the foundation for Nepal’s democratic future, although the country continues to face challenges of political stability, inclusion, and governance.
II. Maoist Insurgency (1996–2006)
The Maoist Insurgency (1996–2006) in Nepal, also known as the People’s War, was a decade-long conflict between the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) and the Nepalese government. The insurgency was driven by deep-rooted issues such as poverty, inequality, and the marginalization of ethnic and caste groups. The Maoists, led by Pushpa Kamal Dahal (Prachanda), sought to abolish the monarchy and establish a people’s republic through armed revolution. The conflict escalated as the Maoists gained control over rural areas, using guerrilla tactics to challenge the government. In response, the government launched military operations, resulting in widespread violence and over 17,000 deaths.
The insurgency ended in 2006 with the signing of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA), which brought the Maoists into mainstream politics and officially ended the conflict. The agreement was made possible by the 2006 People’s Movement (Jana Andolan II), which united political parties, civil society, and the Maoists in opposition to King Gyanendra’s autocratic rule. This led to the reinstatement of democracy and the eventual abolition of the monarchy in 2008, transforming Nepal into a federal democratic republic.
The Maoist Insurgency had profound impacts on Nepal’s political landscape. It played a critical role in ending the monarchy, restructuring the state into a federal system, and highlighting issues of social justice, including caste discrimination and land reform. However, the country continues to deal with the legacy of the conflict, including post-war reconciliation and demands for justice from the victims of the violence.
III. Indigenous and Ethnic Movements
a) Madhesi Movement
The Madhesi Movement is a series of political and social protests in Nepal, primarily led by the Madhesi people from the Terai region. This movement emerged in response to the historical marginalization and exclusion of the Madhesis from political power, resource access, and national identity recognition. The Madhesi community, sharing close cultural and familial ties with northern India, has consistently demanded greater political representation, federal autonomy, and equal citizenship rights. Despite efforts to address these issues, the political system has remained dominated by hill-based ethnic groups, leading to ongoing tensions.
The movement gained momentum after the 2006 People’s Movement, particularly during the first Madhesi uprising in 2007, which called for proportional representation and autonomous federal states. This unrest was reignited by the promulgation of the 2015 Constitution, which many Madhesis felt did not adequately address their demands. Widespread protests and a blockade, including disruptions to trade with India, highlighted the community’s discontent with the constitutional arrangements. Although some agreements have been reached with the government, dissatisfaction persists regarding federal demarcation and political inclusion, underscoring the need for a more equitable representation of Nepal’s diverse ethnic and regional identities.
b) Tharu Movement
The Tharu Movement is a social and political campaign focused on advocating for the rights and empowerment of the Tharu people, an indigenous ethnic group primarily residing in Nepal’s Terai region. Historically marginalized, the Tharu community has faced discrimination, land dispossession, and limited access to education and healthcare. The movement seeks to address these issues by demanding recognition of Tharu identity and culture, land rights, and greater political representation within Nepal’s governance structures.
Gaining momentum in the early 2000s, the Tharu Movement saw significant activism in response to the 2015 Constitution, which established a federal structure in Nepal. Many Tharus felt that the new political arrangements did not adequately reflect their aspirations, prompting protests that called for an autonomous Tharu province and recognition of their language and culture. The establishment of organizations such as the Tharu Kalyankarini Sabha has been instrumental in mobilizing the community and raising awareness of their issues.
While the movement has led to increased recognition of Tharu identity and language, challenges remain in achieving political representation and securing land rights. The Tharu Movement underscores the broader struggle for indigenous rights in Nepal, highlighting the need for an inclusive political framework that addresses the specific needs and aspirations of marginalized communities like the Tharu.
IV. Women’s Rights Movements
The Women’s Rights Movements in Nepal have been instrumental in advocating for gender equality and the empowerment of women within a traditionally patriarchal society. Emerging in the late 20th century, particularly during the 1990 People’s Movement (Jana Andolan I), these movements have addressed various critical issues such as discrimination, violence against women, access to education and healthcare, and political participation. Activists have worked tirelessly to raise awareness of women’s rights and push for legal reforms, including the Domestic Violence (Offense and Punishment) Act of 2009 and changes to inheritance laws that promote gender equality.
In recent years, significant strides have been made, including constitutional mandates for at least 33% representation of women in local government, and heightened public discourse around issues such as gender-based violence, exemplified by the #MeToo movement. Women’s organizations and NGOs have played a vital role in supporting survivors of violence and mobilizing grassroots activism. However, challenges persist, including social stigma, entrenched cultural norms, and limited access to resources, which continue to hinder women’s full participation in society.
Overall, the Women’s Rights Movements in Nepal are crucial for promoting gender equality and social justice, striving to create a more inclusive society that recognizes and uplifts the contributions and rights of women. The ongoing efforts of activists reflect a commitment to addressing systemic barriers and fostering an environment where women can thrive and fully exercise their rights.
V. Dalit Movement
The Dalit Movement in Nepal is a vital social and political campaign aimed at advocating for the rights and empowerment of the Dalit community, historically marginalized as “untouchables” under the caste system. This movement emerged in response to centuries of systemic discrimination, social exclusion, and economic deprivation faced by Dalits. Gaining momentum in the late 20th century, particularly after the 1990 People’s Movement (Jana Andolan I), the movement has sought to address caste-based inequalities, promote social justice, and secure political representation for Dalits.
Key demands of the Dalit Movement include legal and policy reforms to abolish discriminatory laws and practices, as well as increased political representation in governance. The Caste-Based Discrimination and Untouchability (Offense and Punishment) Act of 2011 is one significant achievement aimed at combating caste-based discrimination. Despite these advancements, challenges remain, as caste-based discrimination continues to affect access to education, employment, and resources for Dalits.
Overall, the Dalit Movement plays a crucial role in challenging systemic inequalities in Nepal, advocating for the recognition and protection of Dalit rights. Through activism and community mobilization, the movement strives to create a more inclusive society that upholds the dignity and rights of all individuals, regardless of caste, while fostering social change and empowering Dalits to assert their rightful place in society.
VI. Environmental and Land Rights Movements
a) Anti-Koshi Dam Protests
The Anti-Koshi Dam Protests are a series of demonstrations led by local communities in the Koshi River basin of Nepal against the construction of the Koshi High Dam. While the dam is intended to harness hydropower, mitigate flooding, and improve irrigation, it has faced significant opposition due to concerns over its social, economic, and environmental impacts. Key issues raised by protesters include the potential displacement of thousands of residents from their homes, loss of agricultural land, and the ecological damage that could result from altering the river’s natural flow.
The protests gained momentum as communities, environmental activists, and civil society organizations rallied against the dam, highlighting the lack of adequate consultation with affected populations. Activists have organized rallies, public meetings, and media campaigns to demand a halt to the project and advocate for more sustainable alternatives to meet energy and irrigation needs. The movement exemplifies the growing trend of grassroots activism in Nepal, where local communities increasingly seek to have their voices heard in decisions that affect their lives and environments.
Overall, the Anti-Koshi Dam Protests reflect the complexities of development in Nepal, emphasizing the need to balance infrastructure projects with social justice and environmental sustainability. The movement underscores the importance of recognizing local rights and concerns in the development process, advocating for a more inclusive approach that considers the needs of communities and ecological preservation.
b) Community Forestry Movement
The Community Forestry Movement in Nepal is a significant initiative that promotes sustainable forest management by empowering local communities to manage their own forest resources. Emerging in the 1970s and gaining traction in the 1980s in response to rampant deforestation and environmental degradation, the movement emphasizes the need for local participation in conservation efforts. Its key objectives include empowering communities, ensuring sustainable forest management, and enhancing biodiversity conservation through community-led initiatives.
The movement has achieved notable successes, with thousands of community forestry user groups established across Nepal. These groups have effectively managed forest resources, leading to improved forest health and increased availability of timber, fuelwood, and non-timber forest products. Furthermore, the movement has empowered marginalized communities, particularly women and indigenous groups, by providing them with a voice in decision-making processes regarding forest management and enhancing local livelihoods.
Despite its achievements, the Community Forestry Movement faces challenges, such as the need for ongoing support for community organizations and adapting to climate change impacts. Nevertheless, it represents a progressive approach to forest management that aligns environmental sustainability with community empowerment, highlighting the potential for local stewardship in preserving natural resources.
c) Chure Movement
The Chure Movement is an important social and environmental initiative in Nepal focused on the conservation and sustainable management of the Chure (Siwalik) range, a critical mountain system that supports biodiversity and the livelihoods of millions of people living in the plains below. Emerging in response to rampant deforestation, soil erosion, and environmental degradation, the movement aims to address these pressing issues through environmental conservation, sustainable resource management, and active community engagement.
Key activities of the Chure Movement include community-led reforestation projects, soil conservation efforts, and advocacy for protective policies. By fostering collaboration among local communities, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and government agencies, the movement has raised awareness about the ecological significance of the Chure region and promoted sustainable practices. This engagement has instilled a sense of ownership among residents, enhancing community resilience against natural disasters and improving resource management.
Despite its successes, the Chure Movement faces challenges such as insufficient government support, ongoing illegal activities, and the impacts of climate change. Continued advocacy and collaboration are vital for sustaining the movement’s impact. Overall, the Chure Movement exemplifies the integration of environmental conservation with community development, demonstrating how local engagement can effectively preserve vital ecosystems while supporting the livelihoods of those who depend on them.
d) Haliya Movement
The Haliya Movement is a vital social initiative in Nepal aimed at advocating for the rights and dignity of Haliya, individuals subjected to bonded labor in agricultural settings. This system, rooted in historical feudal practices, forces marginalized groups to work on landlords’ lands under oppressive conditions. Despite the official abolition of bonded labor in Nepal, many Haliya continue to face exploitation, low wages, and social discrimination. The movement seeks to raise awareness of these issues, push for legal protections, and empower Haliya individuals to improve their socio-economic conditions.
Key activities of the Haliya Movement include grassroots organizing, awareness campaigns, and collaboration with non-governmental organizations (NGOs) to support Haliya rights. Activists document cases of bonded labor, provide legal assistance, and mobilize community support for Haliya individuals. As a result, the movement has increased visibility for the challenges faced by Haliya, fostering solidarity and empowering them to demand better working conditions and social recognition.
Despite its successes, the Haliya Movement faces ongoing challenges, such as resistance from traditional power structures and persistent social stigma. Continued advocacy is essential to ensure that Haliya rights are protected and that they achieve social and economic equity. Overall, the movement highlights the struggle for social justice in Nepal, emphasizing the need to address historical injustices and promote the dignity of marginalized communities.
VII. LGBTQ+ Movement
The LGBTQ+ Movement in Nepal is a vital social and political initiative aimed at advocating for the rights and acceptance of individuals identifying as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and other sexual and gender minorities. Emerging from the broader human rights struggle, the movement has gained visibility since the early 2000s, particularly following a landmark Supreme Court ruling in 2007 that recognized the rights of sexual minorities. Key objectives include advocating for legal protections against discrimination, promoting social acceptance, and ensuring access to health services for LGBTQ+ individuals.
The movement has engaged in various activities, such as pride marches, awareness campaigns, and the establishment of advocacy organizations like the Blue Diamond Society. These efforts have significantly raised awareness of LGBTQ+ issues, fostering community solidarity and promoting advocacy at local and national levels. The growing visibility of pride events has contributed to a sense of belonging among LGBTQ+ individuals in Nepal and has led to some legal recognition of their rights.
Despite these advancements, the LGBTQ+ Movement faces ongoing challenges, including societal stigma, discrimination, and inadequate legal protections. Continued advocacy is crucial to push for comprehensive laws that ensure equality and protection against violence. Overall, the movement highlights the struggle for human rights and social justice, emphasizing the importance of creating an inclusive society that respects and upholds the rights of all individuals, regardless of their sexual orientation or gender identity.
VIII. Students’ Movements
The Students’ Movements in Nepal have been a vital force in the country’s political landscape, advocating for democratic rights, social justice, and educational reform. Historically, students have played a crucial role during significant political transitions, such as the 1951 Revolution and the 1990 People’s Movement (Jana Andolan I). The movement’s key objectives include pushing for political freedoms, improving access to quality education, and addressing broader social issues like caste discrimination and gender equality.
Engaging in protests, sit-ins, and awareness campaigns, organizations like the Nepal Student Union have mobilized students and fostered a sense of solidarity among young people. The impact of these movements has been profound, influencing public opinion and pressuring the government to implement political reforms, thereby highlighting the power of youth activism in driving social change.
Despite their achievements, the Students’ Movements continue to face challenges such as political repression, lack of support from political parties, and internal divisions. Moving forward, sustained engagement and collaboration among student organizations are crucial to effectively advocate for their rights and interests. Overall, the Students’ Movements emphasize the importance of youth participation in the political process, inspiring new generations to work toward a more equitable and just society.
IX. Civil Society Movements
Civil Society Movements in Nepal are essential in advocating for social justice, human rights, and democratic governance. Comprising a diverse range of organizations, including non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and grassroots initiatives, these movements have become influential in the country’s political landscape, particularly following its transition from a monarchy to a federal democratic republic. Their key objectives include promoting human rights, ensuring good governance, and empowering local communities to participate in decision-making processes.
Engaging in advocacy campaigns, awareness programs, and capacity-building efforts, civil society movements have successfully raised awareness about human rights issues, promoted gender equality, and facilitated dialogue between citizens and the government. Their contributions have been significant in strengthening democratic practices and accountability in Nepal, encouraging greater political participation among the population.
Despite these achievements, civil society movements face challenges such as government restrictions, political instability, and limited funding, which threaten their effectiveness. To navigate these obstacles, it is crucial for civil society to adapt by building stronger coalitions and engaging a broader range of stakeholders. Overall, these movements underscore the importance of active citizen participation in fostering a just and equitable society, highlighting grassroots activism’s role in promoting democratic values and social justice.