Memory

Memory is a fundamental psychological process that enables individuals to encode, store, and retrieve information over time. It plays a critical role in learning, decision-making, and adapting to the environment. Memory is typically categorized into sensory, short-term, and long-term memory, each serving different functions and durations. Long-term memory is divided into explicit (declarative) and implicit (non-declarative) types. Forgetting can occur due to various factors such as decay, interference, retrieval failure, or motivated forgetting. The biological basis of memory involves brain structures like the hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, amygdala, and cerebellum, which support different types of memory functions.

Memory is the psychological process by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved when needed. It allows individuals to retain past experiences, learn new information, and apply knowledge in future situations.

“Memory is the means by which we draw on our past experiences in order to use this information in the present” (Sternberg & Sternberg, 2016)

“Memory refers to the processes that are used to acquire, store, retain, and later retrieve information” (Cherry)

Characteristics of Memory

• Memory begins with the process of encoding, where information is transformed into a format that can be stored in the brain.
• It involves maintaining encoded information over time in short-term or long-term memory systems.
• Memory allows for the recall or recognition of stored information when needed.
• Memory has varying capacities: short-term memory holds limited information, while long-term memory has a virtually unlimited capacity.
• The duration of memory varies: sensory memory lasts milliseconds, short-term memory up to 30 seconds, and long-term memory potentially a lifetime.
• Memory is reconstructive, meaning it can be influenced by prior knowledge, beliefs, or external suggestions.
• Memory is not always accurate and is prone to distortion, forgetting, or false recollection.

Types of Memory

·       Sensory Memory

Sensory memory is the initial stage of memory that briefly holds incoming sensory information from the environment in its raw form, allowing the brain to process and filter relevant data for further use. It operates automatically and retains information for only a few milliseconds to a few seconds, depending on the sensory modality—iconic memory for visual input lasts about 0.5 seconds, while echoic memory for auditory input can last up to 3–4 seconds. This short duration prevents overload and enables smooth perception of the external world. Sensory memory plays a crucial role in attention and perception by selecting important stimuli to be transferred to short-term memory for conscious processing (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968).

·       Short-Term Memory (STM)

Short-term memory (STM) is a component of memory responsible for temporarily holding and actively processing a limited amount of information for a brief period, typically around 15 to 30 seconds. STM has a limited capacity, often described by Miller’s (1956) concept of “7±2” items, meaning it can hold about 5 to 9 pieces of information at once. This memory system allows individuals to retain information temporarily, such as a phone number or a short list, while performing cognitive tasks like reasoning or decision-making. Information in STM can be lost quickly unless it is rehearsed or encoded into long-term memory for more permanent storage (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968; Miller, 1956).

·       Working Memory

Working memory is an advanced component of short-term memory that not only temporarily holds information but also actively manipulates and processes it during complex cognitive tasks such as problem-solving, reasoning, and decision-making. Proposed by Baddeley and Hitch (1974), working memory consists of multiple subcomponents: the central executive, which directs attention and coordinates mental activities; the phonological loop, responsible for verbal and auditory information; the visuospatial sketchpad, which handles visual and spatial data; and the episodic buffer, which integrates information across these systems and links working memory to long-term memory. This dynamic system is essential for managing information in real-time and adapting to changing demands (Baddeley, 2000).

·       Long-Term Memory (LTM)

Long-term memory (LTM) is the component of memory responsible for the storage of information over extended periods, ranging from hours to a lifetime. Unlike short-term memory, LTM has a virtually unlimited capacity and can retain information indefinitely. It is divided into explicit (declarative) memory, which includes facts and events that can be consciously recalled, such as semantic memory (general knowledge) and episodic memory (personal experiences), and implicit (non-declarative) memory, which involves unconscious skills and procedures like riding a bike or conditioned responses. Long-term memory is essential for learning, personal identity, and adapting behavior based on past experiences (Squire, 2004; Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968).

Motivation