Types of Public Policy

Public policy refers to the set of decisions, actions, and programs formulated and implemented by the government to address societal issues, achieve national goals, and promote welfare. Policies can be categorized into different types based on their purpose, scope, function, and approach. Understanding the types of public policy is essential because it helps policymakers, scholars, and practitioners analyze policy objectives, strategies, and impacts. Scholars generally classify public policies into substantive policies, procedural policies, distributive policies, regulatory policies, redistributive policies, and constituent policies, among others. Each type has distinct characteristics, actors, and roles in governance.

·      Substantive Policies

Substantive policies are a type of public policy that directly address societal problems, provide public programs, and deliver services to meet citizens’ needs. These policies define what the government intends to do and are often the most visible form of government action. Substantive policies are characterized by clear objectives, tangible outcomes, and measurable impacts. They are designed to solve specific problems such as poverty, unemployment, health crises, or educational deficiencies, and they often require resource allocation, program design, and administrative coordination. Examples include healthcare programs, education reforms, social protection schemes, and infrastructure development initiatives.

Globally, substantive policies play a central role in governance as they translate political goals into actionable programs. For instance, the Affordable Care Act (ACA) in the United States provided comprehensive health coverage to millions, reflecting a substantive policy aimed at addressing healthcare accessibility. In Scandinavian countries like Sweden and Denmark, substantive social welfare policies provide universal healthcare, education, and social security, demonstrating how these policies can ensure social equity and improve quality of life. Such policies are generally developed by executive actors and bureaucracies, often in consultation with legislators, experts, and stakeholders to ensure feasibility and effectiveness.

Substantive policies also involve multiple actors in governance. Legislatures approve funding and legal frameworks, executives and political leaders set priorities, bureaucracies design and implement programs, civil society organizations provide feedback and monitor outcomes, and international actors may offer technical or financial support. Their roles are intertwined, ensuring that substantive policies not only address immediate societal needs but also contribute to long-term development, social stability, and sustainable governance. For example, Nepal’s National Health Policy demonstrates the coordination of government ministries, local bodies, NGOs, and international partners to enhance healthcare access and equity, illustrating the global principles of substantive policymaking in a local context.

·      Procedural Policies

Procedural policies, also known as administrative or process policies, focus on how public policies are implemented rather than what the policies aim to achieve. They establish formal rules, procedures, and guidelines that guide the functioning of government agencies and ensure that programs and services are delivered consistently, efficiently, and transparently. Procedural policies are characterized by standardization, clarity of roles and responsibilities, documentation requirements, and monitoring mechanisms. Unlike substantive policies, which deliver tangible benefits to the public, procedural policies ensure that governance processes are organized, accountable, and legally compliant, thereby reducing inefficiency, corruption, and arbitrary decision-making.

Globally, procedural policies are critical for maintaining effective governance and administrative efficiency. For example, the United States’ Administrative Procedure Act (APA) 1946 establishes standardized procedures for federal agencies to draft, implement, and review regulations, ensuring transparency, public participation, and legal compliance. In the European Union, procedural frameworks such as the Better Regulation Guidelines define processes for policy impact assessments, stakeholder consultations, and evaluation, promoting consistent and accountable policy implementation across member states. Procedural policies are essential for sustaining institutional credibility and ensuring that substantive policies achieve their intended outcomes.

Procedural policies involve multiple actors across governance systems. Legislatures often mandate procedural frameworks to ensure accountability and transparency. Bureaucracies operationalize these rules in the design and delivery of public programs, while oversight institutions such as audit agencies, ombudsmen, or courts monitor compliance. Civil society organizations and media act as external monitors to ensure adherence to procedures. International actors may provide technical assistance to strengthen administrative capacities, particularly in developing countries. In Nepal, for instance, the Public Procurement Act and the Right to Information Act establish procedures for procurement, transparency, and access to government information, illustrating how procedural policies structure governance processes and facilitate effective, fair, and accountable public administration.

·      Distributive Policies

Distributive policies are a type of public policy designed to allocate resources, benefits, or services to specific groups, regions, or sectors of society. These policies are generally non-controversial because they provide tangible benefits without imposing significant costs on other groups. Characteristics of distributive policies include targeted resource allocation, public investment in infrastructure or services, long-term development orientation, and the promotion of social welfare and economic growth. Distributive policies are often implemented through government programs, subsidies, grants, or incentives, and they aim to improve access to public goods, reduce disparities, and support equitable development.

Globally, distributive policies are widely used to foster regional development, support economic sectors, and provide social benefits. For example, in the United States, the federal government’s farm subsidies and rural development programs distribute resources to agricultural communities to enhance productivity and stability. In India, distributive policies like the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) provide financial support and employment opportunities to rural households, reducing poverty and improving livelihoods. These policies illustrate how distributive approaches can address development gaps, strengthen social equity, and promote balanced growth.

Distributive policies involve multiple actors in governance. Legislatures approve budgets and authorize programs, while executives and bureaucracies design and implement initiatives. Civil society organizations and local communities provide feedback and participate in program delivery to ensure efficiency and transparency. International actors may contribute technical assistance or funding to support large-scale distributive initiatives, particularly in developing nations. In Nepal, programs such as the Rural Infrastructure Development Program and Agricultural Development Policy allocate resources to build roads, irrigation systems, and agricultural support services in underserved areas. These policies demonstrate the critical role of distributive policies in promoting economic development, reducing regional disparities, and strengthening governance by delivering tangible benefits to citizens.

·      Regulatory Policies

Regulatory policies are a type of public policy designed to control, guide, or restrict the behavior of individuals, organizations, or industries in order to protect public interest, ensure safety, and maintain social and economic order. These policies are characterized by the imposition of rules, standards, and obligations, often enforced through penalties, licenses, or inspections. Unlike distributive policies, which provide benefits, regulatory policies constrain actions to prevent harm, ensure compliance with laws, and promote fairness and accountability. They are particularly important in areas such as environmental protection, labor standards, financial markets, public health, and consumer safety.

Globally, regulatory policies play a critical role in maintaining societal stability and addressing market failures. For example, the Clean Air Act in the United States regulates industrial emissions to reduce pollution, while the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) in the European Union establishes strict standards for data privacy and security. These policies reflect the need for governments to balance individual or corporate freedoms with the collective welfare of society. In developing countries, regulatory policies are crucial for protecting vulnerable populations and ensuring sustainable economic and social development.

Regulatory policies involve multiple actors in governance. Legislatures create laws that define the regulatory framework, while executives and bureaucratic agencies implement and enforce these rules. The judiciary interprets regulations, resolves disputes, and ensures compliance with constitutional provisions. Civil society organizations, media, and advocacy groups often monitor regulatory enforcement and advocate for stronger safeguards. International actors, such as the United Nations, World Health Organization, and multinational regulatory bodies, influence domestic regulations through standards, guidelines, and technical assistance. In Nepal, regulatory policies like the Environmental Protection Act and the Labor Act establish rules for industrial practices, workplace safety, and environmental conservation, highlighting the role of regulatory frameworks in safeguarding public interest and strengthening governance.

·      Redistributive Policies

Redistributive policies are a type of public policy aimed at transferring resources, opportunities, or benefits from one segment of society to another to reduce social and economic inequalities. These policies are characterized by targeted support for disadvantaged or marginalized groups, efforts to promote social justice, and mechanisms such as taxation, social welfare programs, subsidies, and affirmative action. Unlike distributive policies, which broadly allocate resources, redistributive policies intentionally reallocate wealth, income, or services to address structural disparities and promote equity. They are often politically sensitive because they may involve trade-offs and resistance from more affluent or privileged groups.

Globally, redistributive policies play a crucial role in promoting social inclusion and economic fairness. For example, in the United States, social security programs and the Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC) provide financial support to low-income households, reducing poverty and promoting equity. In Brazil, the Bolsa Família Program redistributes resources to poor families, providing cash transfers conditional on school attendance and healthcare access. Similarly, Scandinavian countries such as Sweden and Norway implement progressive taxation and extensive social welfare programs to ensure equitable distribution of wealth and opportunities. These examples demonstrate how redistributive policies address inequalities and enhance social cohesion.

Redistributive policies involve multiple actors in governance. Legislatures approve laws and budgets that authorize redistribution programs, while executives and bureaucracies design, implement, and monitor these programs. Civil society organizations often advocate for marginalized groups, ensure transparency, and facilitate access to benefits. The judiciary may safeguard constitutional rights and address discrimination in policy implementation. International actors, including donor agencies and multilateral organizations, can support redistributive initiatives by providing funding, technical expertise, or policy guidance. In Nepal, redistributive policies such as social security programs for senior citizens, single women allowances, and Dalit empowerment initiatives aim to reduce inequality, enhance social protection, and promote inclusive development, demonstrating the global and local relevance of redistributive public policy.

·      Constituent Policies

Constituent policies, also known as structural or institutional policies, are public policies that focus on establishing, reorganizing, or modifying government institutions, agencies, or governance frameworks. These policies define the rules, powers, and responsibilities of governmental bodies and shape the administrative and political structures through which other policies are developed and implemented. Characteristics of constituent policies include long-term institutional impact, legal and constitutional grounding, and the capacity to influence governance efficiency and accountability. They are essential for ensuring a stable framework for policymaking, enabling effective coordination among government entities, and promoting institutional legitimacy.

Globally, constituent policies are critical for building and maintaining effective governance systems. For instance, the United States Constitution and subsequent administrative reforms provide the legal and institutional structure for federal, state, and local governments, enabling coherent policy development and execution. In India, the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments established local self-governance bodies—Panchayati Raj Institutions and Municipalities—strengthening decentralized governance and citizen participation. Constituent policies often serve as the foundation for the creation and functioning of substantive, regulatory, and procedural policies, making them central to the policy ecosystem.

Constituent policies involve multiple actors in governance. Legislatures play a key role in enacting laws that define institutional structures and powers. Executives and bureaucracies implement organizational frameworks, assign roles, and coordinate activities among agencies. The judiciary interprets constitutional provisions and resolves disputes regarding institutional authority and responsibilities. Civil society organizations, media, and citizen groups can influence constituent policies by advocating for decentralization, transparency, and accountability. International actors may also provide technical guidance or best-practice models for governance reform, particularly in developing countries. In Nepal, the Local Governance Act and the restructuring under the Constitution exemplify constituent policies that establish local governments, delineate their authority, and create mechanisms for citizen participation, demonstrating their critical role in shaping governance and enabling effective public policymaking.

·      Symbolic or Ceremonial Policies

Symbolic or ceremonial policies are public policies that primarily serve to signal government intentions, commitments, or values rather than produce immediate tangible outcomes. These policies are characterized by their focus on public perception, legitimacy, and political communication rather than direct problem-solving. Symbolic policies are often enacted to demonstrate the government’s concern for social issues, reassure citizens, promote national identity, or convey political priorities. While they may not have immediate measurable impacts, they can influence public attitudes, set the stage for future substantive actions, and enhance trust in governance.

Globally, symbolic policies play an important role in demonstrating political will and shaping social discourse. For example, declarations of climate emergency by governments in Canada, the United Kingdom, and New Zealand are symbolic policies that communicate a commitment to environmental protection, even if immediate regulatory changes are not enacted. Similarly, public campaigns for gender equality, anti-discrimination initiatives, or national commemorations often represent symbolic commitments to societal values. These policies help align public expectations with government intentions and create a favorable environment for implementing future substantive and regulatory policies.

Symbolic policies involve a variety of actors in governance. Executives and political leadership often initiate these policies to signal priorities, while legislatures may endorse declarations or ceremonial resolutions. Civil society organizations and media play a key role in amplifying the symbolic message, ensuring public awareness, and evaluating government sincerity. International actors may also influence symbolic policies through global agreements, conventions, or frameworks, such as the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals, which encourage governments to make public commitments to social and environmental objectives. In Nepal, government campaigns promoting environmental conservation, anti-corruption awareness, or social harmony serve as symbolic policies, reflecting commitments to values and social norms while reinforcing citizen engagement and legitimacy in governance.

·      Defensive Policies

Defensive policies, also known as protective or preventive policies, are public policies designed to shield society, institutions, or the economy from risks, crises, or potential threats. These policies are characterized by risk management, crisis preparedness, and preventive measures aimed at safeguarding public safety, stability, and resilience. Defensive policies often involve contingency planning, early warning systems, safety protocols, and emergency response mechanisms. Unlike distributive or substantive policies, which provide benefits, defensive policies focus on mitigating harm, reducing vulnerability, and maintaining continuity in social, economic, and political systems.

Globally, defensive policies are critical for addressing natural disasters, public health emergencies, security threats, and economic shocks. For example, Japan has comprehensive earthquake preparedness policies that include building codes, early warning systems, and public education programs to reduce casualties and damage. During the COVID-19 pandemic, countries worldwide implemented defensive policies such as lockdowns, quarantine protocols, and vaccination campaigns to prevent the spread of the virus and protect public health. In financial governance, defensive policies include regulations and safeguards that protect against market collapses and economic crises. These policies highlight the proactive role of governments in anticipating risks and ensuring societal resilience.

Defensive policies involve multiple actors in governance. Executives and political leaders set policy priorities and allocate resources for risk management. Bureaucracies coordinate implementation, monitoring, and emergency response operations. Legislatures provide legal frameworks, approve budgets, and oversee preparedness initiatives, while the judiciary ensures adherence to constitutional rights during crises. Civil society organizations, media, and communities play vital roles in awareness-raising, early warning dissemination, and local response. International actors, such as the United Nations, World Health Organization, and donor agencies, often provide technical assistance, funding, and global standards for disaster risk reduction and emergency management. In Nepal, policies like the Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act and emergency response strategies for floods, landslides, and earthquakes exemplify defensive policies that protect citizens, strengthen governance, and enhance societal resilience in line with global best practices.

Actors in the Public Policy Process